Throughout the course of history, perceptions of the Chinese garden have been expressed and interpreted differently. From the historical texts, art and religion that inform the Chinese garden design to how it is perceived by non-Chinese audiences in the present-day, the use of space in, meaning of, and design of the gardens have been reshaped. The landscape of the Chinese garden had different uses such as a place for scholars to reflect and a place to convene and drink wine which are still activities that take place in some present-day Chinese gardens such as in the United States. Earlier garden traditions reflected the works of painterly scholarship, but since then, the garden and landscape have evolved with the extra layer of understanding from the Western perspective. The garden landscape, space, and design has been interpreted and implemented differently throughout the West, resulting in differing perceptions based on literature, experiences, and presented perceptions of Chinese cultural tradition. In some ways, one can envision the design of the Chinese garden and landscape as a palimpsest where the designs may vary over time but there are elements that remain and have been reinterpreted by newer audiences.
The first question to ask is “What makes a garden or landscape ‘Chinese’?” One of the first impressions that the West has with China is often influenced and informed by the mainstream or popular culture that has been consumed by the global audience. The design of the Chinese landscape, especially in the West, was impacted by the presentation in popular culture works that were culturally representative of China. For example, one of the more popular Chinese films in the West, Raise the Red Lantern, explores ideas of confinement and emptiness through the use of space. While the movie was made by a Chinese filmmaker, the intended audience they were targeting were the West, an internationalization of content. In the context of Chinese gardens, courtyards have been seen in more gardens today and used for convening. Raise the Red Lantern’s courtyard is reminiscent of the Confucian Family Courtyard and “Siheyuan” in Beijing (Chinese Residences). There is a main courtyard for people in different quarters to come together to meet. Raise the Red Lantern has a similar construct of space in which each wife has her own quarters yet they must convene together for dinner and/or meet in the small courtyard to see who is going to have the raised red lanterns. The use of space accentuated the emptiness and isolation through the use of differing but high levels of walls and the creation of echoes during the third wife’s opera singing. Informed by the Confucian tradition and representations in popular culture designed for global audiences, the structures of courtyards and space had been seen in different gardens in the West.
Another globally-recognized work that has vastly influenced the global perception of China and its landscape and design is the Story of Stone which describes a vast, carefully designed garden being named by court scholars based on poetry from the past and representative symbolism informed by China’s three traditions — Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Looking towards the past for wisdom and inspiration is a part of the Confucian tradition, and the way it is expressed in the Story of Stone captures this idea when Bao-yu explains that “‘to recall old things is better than to invent new ones; and to recut an ancient text is better than to engrave a modern’” (Cao, 328). Many of the choices of names for these areas and the plants used represent the ideals in Confucianism, but it has also worked with the other traditions. For example, in addition to these elements from Confucianism, the Huntington Library garden takes into account parts of Daoism such as different levels and the symbiotic dichotomy of two opposing forces. The Huntington Library garden specifically has T’ai-hu rocks to showcase opposing forces of softness (water) working with hardness (stone) (Plaks, 160). The garden in the book had different uses of space such as a place for study and a place to convene. The Story of Stone has been taken as a basis for many garden designs due to its wide recognition and interpretations from and applications by global audiences. The use of space in the book has also been used in conjunction with other texts and literature in many gardens including the Huntington Library Chinese garden.
Despite influences from popular culture, Westerners have also based their interpretations of Chinese garden and landscape through reviewing traditional texts, arts, and poetry, and in some cases, incorporating actual parts of them into their garden landscape. Using texts from famous Chinese poets such as Tao Yuanming and his “Peach Tree Blossom” to draw themes such as seclusion and escape into nature, garden designers have implemented these ideas and uses of space with their adaptations of Chinese landscapes and gardens. For example, the Garden of Flowing Fragrances has small pavilion areas for musicians to come perform their music in a secluded setting in nature which is synonymous to the uses described in the poem “Begging” by Tao Yuanming where people have come together to sing in the comfort of the small village (Tao). In addition, the garden or landscape as a place of meeting to eat and drink has also been prevalent in these older poems by Tao Yuanming and relates to other parts of the Huntington Library garden such as the dumpling house. However, while the Huntington Library garden is based on thorough research and contemplation of different pieces of literature in China, there have been other interpretations of what is considered a Chinese garden and/or landscape in the present-day.
Some interpretations were based off of participant observation of gardens and landscape in China. The Astor Chinese Garden Court at the MET would be an example of this. This garden was designed primarily based on observation of structures and landscapes when Brooke Astor went to China during her childhood, the architecture and designs of temples being remembered thoroughly, and her efforts to try to recreate her experiences at the MET (Li). It was considered more authentic after the invitation of Chinese craftsmen and chef from Suzhou in China to collaborate and work on it with before its opening in 1980 (Li). The usage of the space was also geared to represent Chinese culture where the Chinese opera of Peony Pavilion was performed. The impression of the Astor Court as authentic is derived from the involvement and craftsmanship by people from China as well as the “cultural and intellectual imaginations both by the Chinese themselves and about China in an era of border-crossing” (Li). Based on experiences in China as well as getting collaborative input from people in Suzhou, this creates another interpretation of the standards of what makes this garden and landscape authentically “Chinese”.
Another interpretation of how a landscape or garden could be considered Chinese is in the case of the short documentary of Manufactured Landscapes. While vastly different than the representations of actual gardens, it can be argued that the landscapes depicted in the industrial setting can be considered a Chinese landscape due to its physical location in China. In modern-day China, the factory setting can be considered a representative landscape of China due to the amount of industry and mass production that takes place. The film itself explores the subtle, aesthetics of the industrialization, highlighting these aspects through the lack of narration or background tracks. While the landscape may not reflect a natural setting as many of the other interpretations of gardens, the association with location is important, and the global view of China as a nation of mass production creates an image of an “authentic” Chinese landscape. The perspective of the director as an outsider looking in represents another instance where sharing the experiences and observations can lead to a reinterpretation of the Chinese landscape, differing in context and focus.
As time progresses, the landscape and design representative of China to the international community are being reshaped continuously, and because of this, there are diverse attitudes that come about from these physical interpretations. In the introduction of Ideas of Chinese Gardens, it reviews some of the general attitudes of Westerners towards Chinese garden design and landscape and its development over time (Rinaldi). Some of the understanding of Chinese landscape stems from the witness accounts of Westerners who went to China. However, witness testimonies may be warped from what was actually seen, and due to the Western understanding during the 14th century based initially on hearsay and narrative accounts, the interpretations of Chinese gardens and their meanings have changed. Early accounts saw it as too simplified and just a carving of actual nature due to its design, and this interpretation had yielded different reactions such as the thought that it was meant to be cost-effective, for economic reasons rather than anything else. However, on the other side of things, it was seen as a defamation of nature in that its a product of human artifice and introduction of objects in nature, something that echoes the debate of artificial versus natural in the Story of Stone between Bao-yu and his father. Over time, the representation of Chinese garden and landscape and its reception by Westerners has been reshaped and interpreted differently.
The garden and landscape is informed by and informs different works such as paintings and poetry which shows that as an artform the landscape inspires people to think and reinterpret the meanings behind the design choices of the garden. This idea is similar to what was discussed with Wang Luyan in regards to how contemporary art is meant to have people think and question its meaning and function. In a way, the Chinese garden and landscape can be considered an art form in its palimpsest-like interpretations. Just as how contemporary art works by Wang Luyan had received different reactions and interpretations from the audience, the garden/landscape, as shown in Ideas of Chinese Gardens, has received different reactions. Therefore, it can be considered an art form that continuously gets people to think about the intentions in its designs. In relation to popular culture, the idea of Chinese garden and landscape shows one interpretation of garden and landscape focused on appealing to an intended audience.
In conclusion, the Chinese garden and landscape has over time received various interpretations by the global audience. These interpretations can be influenced by the representations in popular culture, instability of eyewitness testimony, and the focal lens in which one views a “Chinese landscape”. There are many modern interpretations of Chinese gardens that are informed by participant/traveler observation or theory by looking into old Chinese texts. Some are actual gardens like the Garden of Flowing Fragrances and others look at industrial landscapes as representative of China. Because of these variances, the idea of the Chinese garden and landscape is constantly being reformed as it causes people to think and question its design.
Works Cited
Burtynsky, Edward, director. Manufactured Landscapes. 2006.
Cao Xueqin, The Story of the Stone (Dream of the Red Chamber) (David Hawkes, trans.) London: Penguin Books, Ltd., 1973.
Da Hong Deng Long Gao Gao Gua: Raise the Red Lanterns. Peking, China: China Film Co-production Corp, 1991.
Huntington Library, The Garden of Flowing Fragrances.
Li, Han. “From the Astor Court to Liu Fang Yuan: Exhibiting ‘Chinese-Ness’ in America.” Journal of Curatorial Studies, vol. 4, no. 2, 2015, pp. 284–307., doi:10.1386/jcs.4.2.284_1.
Plaks, Andrew H. (1976). Archetype and Allegory in “The Dream of the Red Chamber.” Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Rinaldi, Bianca Maria, editor. Ideas of Chinese Gardens: Western Accounts, 1300-1860. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt18z4g4h.
Tao Qian, “Begging”.
Wang, Qijun, and Xianfeng Jia. Traditional Chinese Residences. Foreign Languages Press, 2002.
